Thin-film actuators (TFAs): a review

Abstract

Low-stiffness thin-film actuators (TFAs) have been attracting increasing attention in soft robotics, energy harvesting, and wearable technologies due to their programmable configurations, diverse deformation modes, and facile fabrication processes. This review summarizes recent progress in TFAs with a focus on their structural designs, fundamental mechanics, materials, and deformation mechanisms. Furthermore, we discuss their practical applications, challenges, and future opportunities, offering insights to guide the development of next-generation TFA innovations.