Interpretation and manipulation in human plans∗

Abstract

An analysis of children's interpretations of a complex episode of social interaction is used to illustrate three features of human plans which distinguish them from robot plans and which form a basis for a theory of the development of social action. The features are: (1) Human plans are social; (2) human plans operate on interpretations; and (3) human plans are used, not just executed. Elementary school and college subjects were shown a skit in which one character deceives another. Many of the younger subjects considered the interaction to be cooperative, whereas older subjects understood that the deceiver was manipulating the victim's cooperative interpretation. A model of interacting human plans is incorporated in a notation system which is used for displaying the structure of the alternative interpretations and their mutual embed‐dings. The notation contains a key concept, mutual knowledge (or belief), which incorporates the essentially social feature of human plans. Implications of the model of human plans for the development of social action and cognition are discussed.