Challenges in the Assessment of Nanotoxicity, Recommendations, and Safe-by-Design Nanomedicines to Counter Toxicological Problems

摘要

Nanotechnology has untied a possibility of multidisciplinary research integrating physics, chemistry, electronics, optics, robotics, biotechnology, and medicine. Nanotechnology deals with the manufacture of new materials, devices, and diverse technological systems with a wide variety of potential applications at the atomic and molecular levels. The size of nanomaterials is similar to that of most biological molecules and structures; therefore, nanomaterials can be suitable for both in vivo and in vitro research and numerous applications. Advancement of nanotechnology leads to the exponential growth of nanomaterials, and more device fabrications lead to complications related to their hazardous effects to the human health and the environment. Nanotoxicology has been emergent as an important sub-discipline of nanotechnology, and it refers to the interaction between nanostructures and biological systems resulting in the generation of toxic responses to nanostructures owing to their unique physical and chemical properties. Truly, nature itself is an exceptional nanotechnologist, which provides us with a range of fine particles, from inorganic ash, soot, sulfur, and mineral particles found in the air and Se nanoparticles produced by many bacteria and yeasts. Most human activities that take place in open air or produce emissions in the environment generate, directly or indirectly, fine powders lifted by air currents. Studies have shown that inhaled nanoparticles are less powerfully removed than larger particles by the macrophage clearance tools in the lungs, causing damage. Nanoparticles can translocate through the circulatory, lymphatic, and nervous systems to many tissues and organs, including the brain. On the other hand, anthropogenic nanoparticles are among the most harmful particulates, to human, animal health, and also to the environment; these ultrafine particles enter the body through skin pores, debilitated tissues, injection, olfactory, respiratory, and intestinal tracts. Nanomaterials in food are anticipated to be ingested; nanoparticles, for instance, in cosmetics and ingredients in food packaging may accidentally get into the gastrointestinal tract. Most of the methods used for toxicity assessment were designed and standardized with chemical toxicology in mind. However, nanoparticles display several unique physicochemical properties that can interfere with or pose challenges to classical toxicity assays, whereas antibacterial activity is marked from ions alone and the fact that nanoparticles are more toxic indicates that other mechanisms add to toxicity. In this book chapter, we focus on the challenges in nanotoxicity assessment, along with recommendations, and designing safe nanomedicines countering toxicological problems.